NARRATED GLOSSARY

Media preparation steps, writing substances, dyes and tools

parchment

paper

inks and pens

colours

gold

Cos'è

What is it?

Parchment is an animal origin writing medium used sporadically since antiquity, then almost exclusively beginning in the 4th century AD onwards. - when books changed from the form of a scroll to the codex, i.e., the same form we are still using today – until the end of the 14th century, then decreasingly only for special functions, such as dedicated or liturgical books and library collections.

Chi la produce

Who makes parchment?

Parchment is today mostly produced by specialised craftsmen. In the early Middle Ages (7th-11th centuries), the process could also take place inside the same monasteries where manuscripts were produced, whilst in the late Middle Ages (12th-15th centuries) it could also occur in workshops where books were made. In general, parchment makers have obtained a higher quality product in terms of both thickness and colour, over time.

Vantaggi e limiti

Advantages and limitations

Parchment is a very resistant material, which is well suited to the book structure where the folios, organised into quires, are sewn together and to the cover. Parchment can be written on both sides and, if necessary, it can also being dyed. Nevertheless, the production process is onerous and tied to the possibility of livestock farming: therefore, the material is very expensive so that any scrap will be carefully reused.

Come si ottiene

How was parchment made?

Medieval recipes testify that goat or sheep skins (in northern Europe also calf skins) were washed, soaked in calcium hydroxide to remove fat and hair, scraped, and then stretched on a frame. Then, the hides were freed of residues on their inner or outer sides, dried and possibly repaired from original defects or those created during the process; then cut to folio size.

Cosa è

What is it?

Paper is a plant origin writing medium that was introduced to the West through the Arabs, who in turn became acquainted with it through the Chinese after the Battle of Talas (751). In the West, it first appeared, albeit sporadically, in the book industry in the 13th century. However, paper did not become competitive with parchment until the late 14th century.

Come si ottiene

How was paper made?

Pulp was obtained by macerating and beating rags in water. The pulp was then stretched out on wooden frames (forms) to which were attached, parallel to the short side, triangular laths (colonnelli) and, parallel to the long side, metal wire rods (vergelle) pointed at the colonnelli in a continuous line (filoni). The pattern of the filoni and wire rods would leave an imprint on the sheet visible against the light.

Cosa è la filigrana

What is a watermark?

A watermark is a design made with metal threads sewn into the centre of one half of the form; it is therefore visible against the light on occidental sheets of paper. It represents a trademark that constitutes – through its identification on specific repertories – one of the orientation tools for dating and locating manuscripts.

Chi la produce

Who produced it?

Paper was produced at mills with water-wheels because water was fundamental to the manufacturing process. The oldest operating paper mill In Italy was and still is the mill in Fabriano (founded in 1264). From there, paper production and trade radiated out to numerous central and northern centres, such as Genoa or Brescia.

Vantaggi e Limiti

Advantages and limitations

Paper offered the great advantage of a considerably lower price than parchment, which was also ensured by the widespread production throughout the territory according to pre-industrial procedures. Furthermore, uniformity of page dimensions, thickness and colour could be managed. However, paper was less durable and, precisely because it was less expensive, it affected the perception of the quality of the finished book object.

Come fare l'inchiostro

How was ink made?

Early mediaeval sources attest to the procedures for making black writing ink, albeit not precisely in terms of dosages. There are generally two types of ink. One is carbon based (carbon black, water and a thickening agent such as isinglass). The other is iron gall ink (a mixture obtained from tannin extracted from gall nuts with iron sulphate or sometimes with some copper sulphate).

Contenere l'inchiostro

Ink container

The instrument needed to contain and store ink was the inkwell (atramentarium in Latin), a small jar with or without a lid, in various shapes and materials, which could be placed on the writing surface, inserted through a special hole, attached to the writing desk itself, as evidenced by a rich iconography. There were also portable inkwells used by itinerant scribes and notaries.

Materiali per le penne

Materials for pens

In Greco-Roman antiquity, the instrument intended for writing on flexible media (papyrus, or parchment) was the calamus, a hollow plant straw sharpened and slit to allow the ink to flow onto the paper. In the Occident, it had already been replaced in late antiquity by bird feathers, mainly from geese, whose greater flexibility allowed the thickness of the stroke to be managed.

Altri utensili

Other tools

The abundant iconography of the scribe – monk or, later, the lay scribe – found in medieval miniatures as well as in secondary literary sources, handed down to us a series of tools, not all of which are recognisable today. Among those most easily identified are the multifunctional and multiform knife (to sharpen the pen, shave off copy errors, and to block sheets on the writing desk), the compass, rulers and squares.

Pigmenti

Pigments

When painting miniatures, the pigments used were mainly of mineral origin. These included: for the colour blue, lapis lazuli and azurite, the latter being much less precious; malachite for green; cinnabar and especially minium (hence the term ‘miniature’) for red and orpiment for yellow. One pigment of animal origin is purple, obtained from a mollusc. A similar purplish red can also be obtained from lichens.

Fasi di lavorazione

Processing steps and tools

Pigments were ground with a pestle to obtain a powder to which a binder (made from egg whites, gum arabic, or glue from parchment scraps) was then added. Colours were applied with a pen or a brush. Finally the miniature would be finished with potassium alum, again applied with a brush, for greater brilliance.

Significato dei colori

Meanings of the colours

The symbolic and cultural value of colours is fundamental to the understanding of the miniature, as is their materiality. Both factors affect how the finished book-object would be received and what price it could demand. Let us consider the use of blue: a positive symbol of Western culture from the 12th century onwards, but also a rare and very expensive pigment that embellishes the decoration.

Oro in foglia

Gold leaf

There are many recipe books of the era on the procedures used to apply gold leaf but they do not include proportions of the ingredients. Gold, which is a ductile metal, is easily reduced to fine gold leaf if beaten between two membranes. Glue is also needed to make the leaf adhere to the parchment, such as chalk, Armenian bole, egg whites or glue made from animal or fish skins.

Oro in polvere

Powdered gold

Gold powder can be obtained by grinding. The process of applying gold powder by brush requires a binder to make it adhere to the surface of the parchment or paper, such as gum water or egg.

Significato dell'oro

Meaning of gold

In the Middle Ages, gold was as much a colour as it was brilliance and lustre, an attribute that has been linked to the sacred since ancient times. The glory of God was gilded, as were haloes. However, the presence of gold, as in the case of blue and purple, was also a material sign of the preciousness of the codex, both as a sacralised object (e.g. the Gospels) and as merchandise.

Cosa è

Parchment. University of Rome Tor Vergata CoRLib Restoration Laboratory.

come si ottiene

Skin scraping. Universität Zürich, late 17th century print.

chi la produce

Parchment cutting and processing with lime. Bologna, University Library, MS 1465, f. 3r.

Monk purchasing a sheet of parchment. Copenhagen, Royal Library, MS 4, 2o, f. 183v.

vantaggi e limiti

Jesus expels the merchants from the Temple. Museum of the Diocese and the Rossano Codex, Purpureus Rossanensis Codex.

Parchment folio painted on the recto and written on the verso. Rome, Angelica Library, MS 1474, De Balneis Puteolanis, ff.13r-14v.

Reuse of parchment in a palimpsest codex. Rome, Angelica Library, MS 1408, f.26 r.

Cosa è

Handmade folio production, cellulose pulp on a wooden frame. Mele Paper Museum

Cellulose pulp stretched on a wooden frame. Amalfi Paper Museum

Frame for making paper by hand. Amalfi Paper Museum

Come si ottiene

Rags macerating in water for paper production. Scriptorium Foroiuliense in San Daniele del Friuli

Drying the handmade sheet of paper, Scriptorium Foroiuliense of San Daniele del Friuli

Detail of the watermarks (filoni) on the paper. University of Rome Tor Vergata CoRLib Restoration Laboratory

Cosa è la filigrana

Frame with detail of the watermark. Amalfi Paper Museum

Watermark in the shape of a snake, from the state archives of Como, 1564 Hauptstaatsarchiv Stuttgart, Germany

Sewing department at the Fabriano paper mill. Cartiere Miliani Archive at the Ferdigoni Fabriano Foundation

Chi la produce

Rag department. Cartiere Miliani Archive at the Ferdigoni Fabriano Foundation

Paper production machinery. Cartiere Miliani Archive at the Ferdigoni Fabriano Foundation

Workers leaving the Fabriano paper mill. Cartiere Miliani Archive at the Ferdigoni Fabriano Foundation

Vantaggi e Limiti

Poster of the Pietro Miliani paper mill in Fabriano. Salce Collection National Museum, Treviso

Miliani Paper Mill Exhibition at a trade fair in Milan. Cartiere Miliani Archive at the Ferdigoni Fabriano Foundation

Large-format department. Cartiere Miliani Archive at the Ferdigoni Fabriano Foundation

Come fare l'inchiostro

Gall nuts for making metal-gall ink. University of Rome Tor Vergata CoRLib Restoration Laboratory

Grinding gallnuts. University of Rome Tor Vergata CoRLib Restoration Laboratory

Ink extraction from gall nuts. University of Rome Tor Vergata CoRLib Restoration Laboratory

Contenere l'inchiostro

Mark the Evangelist dipping his pen into the inkwell. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Latin 8851, L’évangéliaire de la Sainte-Chapelle, f. 52v

Ink container. University of Rome Tor Vergata CoRLib Restoration Laboratory

John the Evangelist dipping his pen into the inkwell. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Latin 8851, L’évangéliaire de la Sainte-Chapelle, f. 115v

Materiali per le penne

Example of a pen. Scriptorium Foroiuliense in San Daniele del Friuli

Example of feather quill pens.

Evangelist with feather quill pen. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Latin 266, f. 22v

Altri utensili

Writing tools. Fresco at the Basilica di Santa Caterina, Galatina (LE)

Evangelist Luke with an erasing instrument. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Latin 8851, L’évangéliaire de la Sainte-Chapelle, f. 75v

Ezra writing using different tools. Florence, Laurentian Medici Library, MS Codex Amiatinus 1, f. 5r

Pigmenti

Cinnabar.
Europeana

Azurite.
General Catalogue of the Cultural Heritage

Malachite.
General Catalogue of the Cultural Heritage

Fasi di lavorazione

Red pigment and ochre powder. University of Rome Tor Vergata CoRLib Restoration Laboratory

Red and Azure pigment powder. University of Rome Tor Vergata CoRLib Restoration Laboratory

Miniature depicting the use of colours. London, British Library, MS Royal 6 E VI, f. 329r

Significato dei colori

Detail of a capital letter in blue. Modena, Estense Library MS MS.V.G.12, Borso d’Este Bible, f. 205 v.

Use of blue in an almond frame. Oxford, Bodleian Libraries, MS Douce 180, f. 23r.

Use of blue in a bible. Modena, Estense Library MS MS.V.G.12, Borso d’Este Bible, f. 56v

Oro in foglia

Drawing with gilding, before applying colour. Salerno, Diocesan Museum, MS. s.s., Pontificale, f. 105v

Application of gold leaf with a brush

Burnishing with agate stone

Oro in polvere

Gold as a mineral

Detail of gilding with powdered gold. Rome, Angelica Library, MS 1474, De Balneis Puteolanis, f. 13r

Significato dell’oro

Use of gold in a sacred text. Bamberga, Bamberga State Museum, MS. Bibl.140, Apocalypse of Bamberga, f. 10v

Use of gold in a sacred text. Bamberga, Bamberga State Museum, MS. Bibl.140, Apocalypse of Bamberga, f. 4v

Use of gold in a sacred text an in the miniature. Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, MS Latin 8851, L’évangéliaire de la Sainte-Chapelle, f. 16v